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All obsidian chipped stone tools that appeared to have diagnostic shapes
were submitted for hydration analysis. Hydration readings were converted
to approximate years B.P. (Before Present) using Thomas Origer's (1993) rate for
Napa obsidian and the Borax Lake to Napa obsidian conversion factor developed by
Kim Tremaine and Dave Fredrickson (1988).
Click to see Points
Click to see Point Interpretation
Click to see Knives
Click to see Knife Interpretation
Click to see Flake Tools
Click to see Cores
Points
Points were chipped on both
sides with a very sharp (unused) cutting edge.
Points were sorted based on the key proposed by Greg White (White
1984:125) during his work at LAK-510 in the Anderson Marsh State Historic Park.
Samples of each recognized style were submitted for hydration analysis.
All but three of the points were of Borax Lake obsidian, 2 were Konocti
obsidian and one was Napa obsidian.
The points are listed here
in order of their hydration readings (most recent to oldest). There were
32 points recovered during project monitoring.
Non-diagnostic Fragments (12)
Broken tips (3), mid-sections (2), and other pieces (8) were recovered from
LAK-76. Both of the Konocti
obsidian pieces were in this category.
Rattlesnake Corner-notched (2) [300 B.P.]
These are small points, most likely for arrows, and the most recent of the
styles of points recovered (0-158, 266). They
had mean hydration readings of 1.9 and 2 microns respectively indicating
manufacture around 300 years B.P.
Excelsior Serrated (2) [900-1,300 B.P.]
These points had rounded
contracting stems and often serrated edges.
Points 0-22 and 0-129 had mean hydration readings of 3.2 and 3.7,
indicating manufacture ~900 and 1,300 B.P.
 Mendocino
Contracting Stem (1) [1,800 B.P.]
These contracting stem and
sometimes flat-based points have a slight shoulder just below the cutting edge.
Point H6-50 had a mean hydration reading of 4.4 microns indicating
manufacture ~1,800 B.P.
Willow Leaf (2) [2,000-2,300 B.P.]
These are often thick
knife-like points (0-26, 227). Point
0-26 had a hydration mean of 4.9 and 0-227 had a hydration mean of 4.6
indicating manufacture ~2,300 and 2,000 years B.P.
 Houx
Serrated (5) [2,500/2,800/2,900 B.P.]
These long contracting-stem points are often serrated and sometimes have ears or
tangs at the shoulder. Point 0-151
had a mean hydration reading of 5.2 microns indicating manufacture ~2,500 B.P.
Item 0-112 had two bands suggesting the reuse of an older tool.
One band was 8.7 microns indicating manufacture ~7,200 B.P. and one was
5.5 microns indicating secondary use ~2,900 B.P.
Item 0-237 had a reading of 5.4 indicating manufacture ~2,800 B.P.
Flat Base (1) [2,700 B.P.]
The base of this point was
squared off by pressure flaking to create a thin, flat base.
Its hydration reading was 5.4 microns indicating manufacture ~2,700 B.P.
 Unidentifiable
Style (1) [3,900 B.P.]
Point 0-175 resembled a Mendocino side-notched point and had a single hydration
rim of 6.4 microns indicating manufacture ~3,900 B.P.
Concave Base (1) [4,600 B.P.]
This long point (0-392) had
a shallow concave base and a mean hydration reading of 7 microns indicating
manufacture ~4,600 B.P.
 Borax Lake Notched
Widestem (1) [4,700 B.P.]
When discovered, it was
thought that this would be the oldest point recovered during the project.
The 7 micron reading from this point suggests manufacture ~4,700 B.P.
Flat-Base Dart (1) [5,100 B.P.]
This point resembled the
small excelsior style dart point described by many researchers, however the base
is flattened and thinned. The thin
base profile more closely resembles a Mostin point.
The hydration reading also resembles a Mostin point with a mean micron
reading of 7.3 indicating manufacture ~5,100 B.P.
 Mendocino
Corner-notched (1) [7,000 B.P.]
These flat-based square and
expending-stemmed points (0-309) sometimes have pronounced corner notches but
often don’t. This one had a
hydration mean of 8.6 microns indicating manufacture around 7,000 B.P.
Mendocino Side-notched (1) [14,200 B.P.]
Point 0-107 appears to have
been serrated, side notched, and may be the result of several periods of use and
reuse. Three hydration bands were
observed on this specimen. The
widest rim had a mean of 12.2 microns indicating original manufacture
around 14,200 B.P. The next
rim had a mean of 8.2 microns indicating additional work around 6,400 B.P.
The smallest rim had a reading of 4.6 microns indicating further work
around 2,000 B.P. Other serrated
point forms (see Houx Serrated listed above) are in the 2,000-year
range.
Flat-base Widestem (1) [14,200 B.P.]
This point (0-108) was a
barely-worked flake that resembled a Borax Lake widestem.
It had a single hydration band with a mean of 12.2 microns
indicating manufacture around 14,200 B.P.
Point Interpretation
A wide range of point styles was recovered
throughout the project area. These
points fell in three major size categories that most likely represent different
hunting technologies. Taken
together, these points indicate that the hunting of terrestrial mammals was a
significant activity at LAK-76 throughout its history.
Thrusting Spears (14,000 to 900 B.P.)
The largest points were most likely the tips
of long thrusting spears. Hydration
data suggest that these types of spears were in use from 14,000 B.P. through 900
B.P.
Throughout this extensive period of time,
changes in form and style are evident. A
range of different base and notch styles can be found until about 4,000 B.P.
These included square bases, concave bases, notched bases, and side
notching. None of these styles
included serrated edges.
Beginning about 4,000 B.P. serrated edges are
found among many point styles and most point bases are rounded or contracting in
shape.
Dart and Atlatl (5,000 B.P. and later)
As with most changes in technology, the
addition of a new technology adds to, rather than replaces, a previous
technology. The small thin-based
dart point with a hydration date of 5,100 B.P. most likely tipped a
short spear or dart. This short
spear or dart would have been launched at prey with the help of a throwing
stick (atlatl). This new hunting
technology did not replace the thrusting spear, but was used alongside it. Point sizes indicate that both technologies were likely in
use from 5,000 B.P. till the time of European arrival.
Bow and Arrow (300 B.P. and later)
The small points used to tip arrows are
evidence of the most recent hunting technology.
The arrow points recovered had hydration dates of 300 B.P.
Many people assume that the development and
use of new technologies provide a population with additional food resources or
make resource procurement easier. Mark
Cohen and others are more inclined to view the introduction of new technologies
as a “means of approximating as closely as possible the old status quo in the
face of our ever-increasing (population) numbers.” (Cohen 1977:285)
Though the sample is VERY small,
this graph of point hydration means suggests a major increase in the number of
points in the 2,000 to 4,000 B.P. time period (5 and 6 micron range) as well as
a possible increase in the 6,400 to 7,000 B.P. period (9 micron range). It is known that the most recent volcanic eruption in the
Lake Basin occurred ~3,200 B.P. The stresses this event had on food resources may have
required an intensification of hunting, which would explain the increase in
points during this period.
Knives
Knives were
chipped on both sides and had dulled (used) cutting edges.
These items were divided into 5 main categories based on physical
attributes. The primary difference
between a knife and a point was the freshness or sharpness of the cutting edge.
It was assumed that knife-edges would have been used repeatedly for a
cutting, scraping, or sawing activity. This
activity would have dulled the cutting edge.
The sharp edge of a point would not have been used for cutting or
scraping in an effort to maintain its sharpness for a hunting event. There
were 109 knives recovered during project monitoring.
Long Thin Knives (28) [1,100/1,800/3,900/6,900/7,400 B.P.]
The most numerous of knives were the long thin
knives. Most of these were of Borax
Lake obsidian (25) although some were of Konocti obsidian (3).
Specimens 0-31 and 0-73 had hydration rims of 4.3 microns indicating
manufacture ~1,800 B.P. Item 0-293
had two rims suggesting the reuse of an existing tool.
The oldest rim was 8.8 microns (~7,400 B.P.) and the more recent 6.4
microns (3,900 B.P.). Item 0-27 and 0-350 (not pictured) had readings of 3.5 and
8.5 microns indicating ages of 1,200 and 6,900 B.P.
The constricted end of 0-73 may indicate use as a reamer.
Broad Knives (27) [1,200/2,300/2,600/3,400/3,900/5,600 B.P.]
Thin and broad, all but one of these knives
were of Borax Lake obsidian. One
was of basalt. Item 0-10 had a
hydration mean of 7.7 microns indicating manufacture ~5,600 B.P.
Item 0-42 had a 6 micron reading indicating manufacture ~3,400 B.P.
Item 0-143 had two hydration bands; one of 6.4 microns suggesting
manufacture ~3,900 B.P. and one of 5 microns suggesting reuse ~2,300 B.P.
Item 0-150 had a mean of 3.6 microns indicating manufacture ~1,200 B.P. Item 0-152 had a mean of 5.2 indicating manufacture ~2,600
B.P. Item 0-66 (not pictured) had a
reading of 5.2 suggesting manufacture ~2,600 B.P.
Thick Irregular Knives (19) [900/1,100/1,600 B.P.]
These knives appeared to be very roughly chipped
and may have been “pre-forms” rather than functional knives.
A pre-form is a piece of obsidian partially trimmed and shaped for
transport. Once it reaches its destination, the final shaping, thinning
and sharpening work is completed.
Borax Lake obsidian had been used for 14 of
these tools, basalt for 3, Konocti obsidian for 1 and obsalt for 1.
Those pictured here had hydration of 3.5 microns (0-12) indicating 1,100
B.P. manufacture and 3.2 microns (0-161) indicating 900 B.P.
Item 0-332 (not pictured) had a reading of 4.1 indicating an age of 1,600
B.P.
Keeled Knives (6) [95/6,700/7,900/10,500 B.P.]
Keeled knives were roughly triangular in
cross-section, resembling a ship’s keel.
Their use is unknown, however the three distinct cutting edges may have
been important for drilling or reaming. White
(1984:228) lists them as “expended” or used knives. Five of these knives
were of Borax Lake obsidian and 2 were of basalt.
Item 0-126 had a reading of 1 micron (95 B.P.).
Item 0-371 had a reading of 8.4 microns (6,700 B.P.). Item 0-354 had a
rim of 9.1 microns, indicating manufacture ~7,900 B.P.
Item 0-347 had a reading of 10.5 microns (10,500 B.P.).
Knife Interpretation
Chipped stone knives can serve a wide range of
functions, however, they are most widely noted for their use in butchering, meat
and hide preparation. Due to this
primary use, stone knives are always found in sites that include stone points.
It is important to note that not all animals that require butchering and
hide preparation are obtained through hunting with spear, dart, or bow.
It takes much less energy and is far easier to trap and snare most small
mammals. Therefore, butchering
tools can be found in sites where there is no evidence of hunting.
Four major styles of stone knives were
recovered during the monitoring program. An
examination of the hydration readings for these items indicates that these
styles were not all popular during the same time period.
Thick Irregular Knives
The thick irregular knives appear to have been
manufactured between 1,000 and 1,500 B.P. (4-5
microns). Though their function is unknown, it is possible that these items were
not knives, but rather rough “preforms” obtained from and shaped at the
Borax Lake obsidian flow. Such
preforms may have been used as items of exchange in the regional trade system.
Broad Flat Knives
The broad and flat knives were manufactured
primarily between 2,000 and 4,000 B.P. (5-6 microns).
A similar increase in the number of points was also found during this
period.
Keeled Knives
Though their use is unknown, these knives with a
triangular cross section appear to be most popular prior to 7,000 B.P. (9+
microns).
Long Thin Knives
Though
there might have been a slight increase in their use at 7,000 and 4,000 B.P. (9
and 5 microns), these knives appeared to be in use through all time periods.
Flake Tools
Flake tools are chipped stone flakes that were
casually used for cutting, scraping, drilling or engraving with little or no
secondary shaping or sharpening. Most
flake tools have no distinct shape other than a straight or pointed cutting
edge. Due to this lack of distinct
shape, few were purposefully picked up or plotted by the Tribal monitors during
the monitoring process. Most of the
flake tools recorded at the lab were from bags of random obsidian flakes that
were collected. There were 72 flake tool
recovered during project monitoring.
Flake Scrapers (55)
Flake scrapers are various shaped flakes that
exhibit use wear and/or secondary flaking on one side.
All but two of these were of Borax Lake obsidian, one was basalt and one
was Napa obsidian. The Napa
obsidian scraper (0-105) had two hydration bands; one with a mean of 1.2
indicating recent edge breakage ~200 B.P., however, most of the artifact had a mean of
11.7 microns, indicating manufacture ~21,000 B.P.
This is likely the oldest stone tool recovered during the project.
Flake Knives (4)
Flake knives are usually more than casual flakes
picked up and used. These flakes
often show intentional thinning or sharpening along one or more edges to create
a more precise cutting or scraping edge. All
flake knives were of Borax Lake obsidian.
Special Flake Tools (6)
Casual flakes can be used as drills, engravers,
and spoke-shaves (for shaving the bark off basketry sticks or arrow shafts).
The materials collected had 4 examples of gravers, one spoke-shave, and
one drill. All were of Borax Lake
obsidian.
Flake Blades (6)
Flake
blades are un-retouched flakes with a length more than twice their width.
For most chipped stone tools, the longer and thinner the initial flake of
stone, the better and sharper the finished tool.
The shape of that initial flake is dictated by the shape of the core of
rock from which it is obtained and the method by which it is removed from that
core. During the manufacturing
process, a core can be casually hit on any flat surface (platform) to remove
usable flakes of stone. However, to obtain the longest and thinnest flakes, the core
must be prepared and shaped to allow their removal.
This process requires extensive knowledge and experience in stone tool
manufacture. The resulting flakes
are long, straight, and very thin. In
sorting through the randomly collected chipped stone, 5 Borax Lake obsidian and
one basalt flake blade were found.
Cores
A “core” is a large stone that is shaped for
the purpose of obtaining large flat and sharp flakes when struck with a stone or
bone hammer. The large flakes are
then used for the manufacture of smaller tools such as scrapers, knives, points,
drills, reamers, etc. There
were 27 cores recovered during project monitoring.
Angular Cores (23)
These made up the majority of cores recovered.
These were multi-platform cores where flakes were removed from whatever
face happened to be convenient or showed the most promise in the flake removal
process. All but two were Borax Lake
obsidian. Two were basalt.
Single-Platform Core (1)
This spent Borax Lake obsidian core was short and
all flakes had been struck from a single platform (0-299). 
Large Flake (3)
Any flake at least 5cm long or wide was
considered a large flake. These
flakes are large enough to have been further manufactured into most of the
points, knives, flake tools, and other chipped stone implements found at the
site.
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